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December 10, 2012

Stress – Coping mechanisms

It has been eight years since the HSE launched its Management Standards for work-related stress and, in the intervening period, the condition has become the biggest cause of occupational ill health in the UK. Time for a reminder of what employers – and specifically managers – can and should be doing to tackle it, reckons John Shahabeddin.

Stress is now widely acknowledged as a bona-fide occupational-health issue – and particularly in these difficult economic times – but, owing to its unpredictable nature, stress can’t be assessed and managed as easily as other hazards and risks. How do you tackle an invisible something that may affect one person and not another, even though they do the same job? Or, something that affects many people but in different ways?

The simple answer is, unfortunately, with great difficulty, meaning stress can often be the bane of a health and safety professional’s life!

According to the HSE, stress is the highest cause of occupational ill health in the UK, with over 400,000 cases reported in 2010/11.1 The industries most affected are health, social work, education and public administration, but any person, in any job role, in any industry can be affected by it.

There are three schools of thought on the issue:

  • Those who believe stress exists and can have debilitating effects on individuals and their families;
  • Those who believe stress does not exist and is just used as an excuse to get some time off work when things get difficult; and
  • Those that haven’t yet made up their mind!

As unfortunate as it may sound, those in the second category are often managers, or people lucky enough not to have suffered, or seen someone else suffer, from the effects of stress, and this is where the problem lies. Although HSE and occupational-health professionals are commonly tasked with dealing with stress, managers are the key to minimising it proactively and assisting with the after-effects.

A people problem

It sounds simplistic, but as the effects of stress are individualised (i.e. it affects different people in different ways, to differing levels of severity), it therefore needs to be managed in an equally individualised way. In short, if you can manage people effectively, you can manage stress, and that places the emphasis firmly on the shoulders of managers. It should be no surprise to learn, then, that all six of the HSE Stress Management Standards2 are also people management functions, and applying management theory to each can really help alleviate the problem.
Demand

A simple, yet common intervention for demand-based stress issues is cutting the affected person’s workload, either through literal reduction or via a phased return to work. While this succeeds in reducing demand on the individual, a problem remains because the work still has to be done by someone, and it usually falls to the person’s colleagues. This can create ill-feeling among a team of people, raises everybody’s workload, and can create a bigger stress problem.

A more innovative approach to demand-based issues relates to productivity. Productivity is defined as output per unit of input. In a literal sense, if a person can do more in the same amount of time, productivity has increased. In terms of stress, instead of cutting a person’s workload, this approach seeks to improve their productivity to enable them to keep up with the demands placed on them more comfortably.

A common misconception about productivity is that it relates solely to equipment or mechanisation, harking back to the profiteering ideologies and production-lines developed by the likes of F. W. Taylor and Henry Ford. While these kinds of systems do increase worker productivity (despite being mostly obsolete in today’s service-driven economy), there are also many alternative, more people-orientated methods of improving productivity, such as effective training and up-skilling; increased team working and autonomy; ergonomic interventions; streamlining systems and procedures; and, most importantly, praise, recognition and support.

Ever since Elton Mayo’s famous experiments at the Hawthorne Plant in Michigan,3 it has been readily accepted that ‘a happy worker is a hard worker’ and many motivational techniques have since been developed and bandied about, aimed at improving a worker’s motivation and job satisfaction. These have ranged from a simple pat on the back for good work to incentive and reward systems and autonomous group working. Indeed, many behavioural safety initiatives are based on motivational theory and behavioural psychology – rewarding safe behaviours in a bid to increase their frequency.

Other means of improving productivity come from the Far East in the form of Japanese Management Techniques, such as Kaizen and Lean Production.4 The focus of these ideologies is on the continuous improvement of systems and processes, and the elimination of wasted resources, respectively. Both have been applied successfully in today’s business world, with lean processes being particularly popular at the moment in larger organisations such as local councils and the NHS.

Control

Control-based stress is derived from how much autonomy a person has in doing their job. It is often simplified to how many breaks a person can take, but in reality, control-stress goes a lot deeper than this.

There have been many theories of management and endless debate as to which broad management style is best – authoritarian (a tight, military-style setup, heavy on direction), democratic (a loose style where autonomy is valued), or paternalistic (somewhere in-between). Most managers will fall into one of these categories, and the choice of management style can significantly affect the stress levels of subordinates.

In McGregor’s well-known study of managers in the 1950s, Theory X, Theory Y,5 he asserted that there were two types of manager: a Type X Manager, who believes workers need to be told what to do, and a Type Y Manager, who believes workers are competent and need autonomy to do their job. The same broad opinions still exist today and, from this, it could be argued that there are also two types of worker – people who require direction, and people who need autonomy.

It therefore goes without saying that a person who enjoys the freedom to do their job as they please would absolutely loathe working for an authoritarian manager, who, by virtue of their management style, seeks to control, instruct and direct. This clash would undoubtedly raise stress levels in the employee. The same can be said for an employee that enjoys instruction and direction – how would they feel if their manager just left them to ‘get on with it’? Have a think about the managers you’ve had that were a joy to work for – the chances are that his or her management style was a perfect match to your way of working.

An effective method of alleviating control-stress issues is an adaptable management style, such as Situational Leadership (for example: Kenneth Blanchard’s One-Minute Manager6), whereby a manager alters their style to suit the employee. This involves managers knowing what style their staff members need, effective communication, and the patience and ability to change their style at will – something that is often in short supply!

Support

Support is the cornerstone of the HSE’s Stress Management Standards as it permeates all of the other standards (i.e. employees need support for role, change, demand, etc.) Obviously, employees need effective interpersonal support from their managers and colleagues but support also needs to come from organisational systems and procedures covering, for example, bullying and harassment, stress, grievance, and sickness absence policies. It is also essential that staff members are aware of where support can be found, necessitating effective training, communication and information-sharing systems.

It is also beneficial to offer support to employees whose stress is derived from outside work (such as a loss in the family, or a divorce). Many organisations offer services such as counselling or cognitive behavioural therapy to these individuals and find that they return to work sooner as a result, saving considerable amounts in the cost of cover.

Relationships

Of all the Stress Management Standards, relationships are easily the most difficult to control and manage. With so many people thrown into the organisational mix together it is almost a certainty that personalities will clash, resulting in disagreements, arguments, gossip, and general feelings of dislike, or even hatred. This type of behaviour is often referred to as “bitchiness” and, contrary to popular belief, men are just as adept at this as women. Occasionally, these feelings can spill over to become genuine bullying, harassment and verbal abuse: a veritable melting pot of stress that a manager must deal with.

Managers should be privy to the benefits of informal interventions when a dispute arises. Nipping minor squabbles in the bud early via a casual chat is a significant factor in preventing it from escalating. When formal complaints are raised, or staff members go over another person’s head to a more senior figure, resentment is sown and lingering ill-feeling often permeates the relationship, creating an even bigger problem. Managers should also ensure that an ‘informal chat’ is precisely that: a quiet meeting over a coffee in the canteen will feel far more informal to an employee than being summoned to the boss’ office for a ‘private’ chat.

Obviously, we cannot regulate personalities – what could be worse than a workforce full of like-minded people? – but it is very important that professionalism is the foundation on which all working relationships are built. All too often, people equate professionalism with ‘looking smart and talking politely to customers’, but it is more than just an act to garner sales – it is an ideal. Colleagues may or may not be able to get along as friends, but they should always be able to get along as professionals.

Professionalism should therefore be a pillar of every organisation’s values and goals, developed over time like a health and safety culture. The sooner this occurs, the easier managing relationship-stress will be.

Role

Role-stress is created when a person is unsure of their responsibilities, or lacks the capabilities and competencies (or feel they do) to carry out their duties. It can also occur if a staff member is over-skilled, creating stagnancy and boredom (an issue that may increase in the current economic climate). As already mentioned, support is a key player in helping with this stress hazard, but managers need to be aware of the delicacy needed to intervene effectively.

Those who suffer from role-stress tend to do so in silence – they are struggling with their workload (or lack of it) and are reluctant to tell their manager the real reason, lest he or she take disciplinary, or worse, capability action. Role-stress can be common in new employees, particularly where a probationary period is evident, and in those involved in organisational change (see below), where job roles are often combined or restructured.

To proactively tackle role-stress, in the first instance organisations’ recruitment systems and procedures must be robust to ensure the correct person is selected for the job. The emphasis should then turn to managers to provide support, guidance, training and positive constructive feedback during the early stages of the staff member’s employment or promotion.

Open, two-way dialogue is also essential during this period, so any kinks or difficulties can be ironed out before they develop into larger issues. Regular one-to-one sessions, or performance review meetings can also act as a monitoring system to ensure that an ongoing assessment of role-stress is taking place.

It is also important that a manager assesses and understands how an employee works (e.g. using an adaptable management style), which will assist greatly in the early stages of employment or promotion by letting a manager know when to direct and when to back off. This will be a benefit in the longer term by reducing any associated control-stress issues.

Change

With the current drive for economic austerity, organisational change is increasingly pervading the corporate landscape, with many, if not all, businesses restructuring in some way in a bid to reduce costs. This has inevitably led to a marked increase in change-stress among the national workforce.

Change-stress results when an employee’s job is altered in some way. This can be a contractual change, an additional role or responsibility, or even changes to equipment or procedures. The stress results from a reluctance to adapt (i.e. the employee feels they were happier the way things were) and can often be accompanied by role-stress.
The extent to which the change impacts on stress levels depends on a variety of personal factors, from job satisfaction to outlook (i.e. an optimist or pessimist). It is also important to remember that an organisational restructure can often be associated with redundancy, so uncertainty about the future can also have a significant bearing on the stress levels of employees.

Managing change is complex and a deeper discussion is beyond the scope of this article. However, managers need to be aware of the role of support during a period of change. Creating ownership of the changes can be a major facilitator to acceptance, as can inclusion, discussion, effective communication and feedback. Staff members are more likely to reject a change if they feel it is being forced upon them.

By encouraging them to be involved in the process and contribute to the development of the new system, they will be more likely to consent to, or even look forward to, the changes to be made, thus helping the process run more smoothly.

Strategy and the role of the practitioner

The majority of organisations today use a reactive approach to stress management – that is, they deal with stress when it becomes a major issue. It is even common for some organisations to reject revisions to their well-being procedures, or forego employee stress awareness training for fear a “can of worms” will be opened. This is perhaps not the best approach to stress management.

The advantages of the interventions described in this article are that they are enterprise-focused and serve a dual purpose: not only do they help reduce stress proactively they also seek to improve business efficiency, productivity, leadership and management strategy, staff motivation, job satisfaction and organisational goals and culture – all of which are crucial to a successful organisation.

Although the emphasis in this article has been on management, as stakeholders and promoters of good mental health and a reduction in occupational stress, safety and health practitioners can, and should, play a key role in the development of high-level strategies with respect to well-being. And, with the emphasis clearly on both stress reduction and improving business performance and efficiency, there is not a senior manager around whose pickle won’t be tickled by the prospect!    

References
1    HSE stress figures for 2010/2011 – www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causdis/stress/index.htm
2    HSE stress management standards – www.hse.gov.uk/stress/standards/index.htm
3    Mayo, E (1933): The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilisation, Macmillan Company,  New York
4    Masaaki, I (1986): Kaizen: The Key to Japan’s Competitive Success, Random House, New York
5    McGregor, D (2005): The Human Side of Enterprise (Annotated Edition), McGraw Hill
6    Blanchard, K (1994): Leadership and the One-Minute Manager, Harper Collins Business

John Shahabeddin is the corporate health and safety trainer for North Tyneside Council.

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